Labeling Theory - Philosophical Concept | Alexandria
Labeling Theory, also known as social reaction theory, posits that deviance is not inherent in an act itself, but is instead the result of the application of rules and sanctions onto an offender. It is not the commission of a crime that creates a criminal, but the successful application of the “criminal” label. Often misunderstood as excusing criminal behavior or suggesting crime is entirely subjective, Labeling Theory instead examines how societal responses shape both individual identities and future behavior.
Though precursors exist, the formal articulation of labeling’s core tenets emerged in the mid-20th century. While not explicitly named, Frank Tannenbaum's 1938 book, Crime and the Community, discusses the "dramatization of evil," where society's reaction to minor deviance can lead to more serious and entrenched criminality. Later, in 1951, Edwin Lemert differentiated between primary deviance (initial, often situational rule-breaking) and secondary deviance (deviance that results from the societal reaction to primary deviance), laying further groundwork for the theory. The post-World War II era, marked by burgeoning civil rights movements and increasing critiques of societal power structures, provided fertile ground for these ideas.
However, it was Howard Becker’s 1963 publication, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, that brought labeling theory into the mainstream. Becker argued that deviance is created by society, stating: "social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders." This perspective challenged traditional views of criminality as solely the product of individual pathologies or social disorganization. Critiques soon followed. Some scholars argued it overemphasized the power of social reaction, neglecting individual agency. Others questioned its empirical support. Nevertheless, Labeling Theory pushed criminologists to consider the often-unintended consequences of the criminal justice system.
Today, Labeling Theory continues to inform criminological research and policy. Its insights resonate in discussions surrounding juvenile justice, drug policy reform, and restorative justice practices. It also continues to inspire debate. Does the theory go far enough in addressing structural inequalities? How do we balance individual responsibility with the undeniable impact of social labeling? The enduring mystique lies in its challenge to our assumptions about crime and punishment, prompting an ongoing exploration of the complex interplay between individual behavior and societal response.