On Ends - Classic Text | Alexandria
On Ends (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum)
by Marcus Tullius Cicero
"On Ends" (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum), composed by Marcus Tullius Cicero in 45 BCE, stands as one of antiquity's most profound philosophical examinations of ethics and the supreme good. This masterwork, written during a period of personal grief and political turmoil following the death of Cicero's daughter and Caesar's ascension to power, comprises five books that systematically explore and critique the major ethical theories of Classical philosophy.
The treatise emerged during the twilight of the Roman Republic, when intellectual discourse flourished amid political uncertainty. Structured as a series of dialogues between Cicero and various interlocutors, including the Epicurean Torquatus and the Stoic Cato the Younger, the work examines competing views of what constitutes the highest good and evil. Cicero's genius lies in his ability to present complex Greek philosophical concepts to a Roman audience while advancing his own synthetic approach to ethical theory.
Through careful argumentation and elegant prose, Cicero evaluates Epicureanism (Books I-II), Stoicism (Books III-IV), and the Academic-Peripatetic tradition (Book V). His treatment reveals not only his encyclopedic knowledge of Greek philosophy but also his skill in adapting these ideas to Roman sensibilities. The work's influence extended far beyond its immediate context, serving as a crucial transmission vehicle for Greek philosophical ideas to medieval and Renaissance thinkers. Notably, the text's opening words ("Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet...") became the standard placeholder text in printing and typography, an ironic legacy for a work of such philosophical depth.
The enduring relevance of "On Ends" lies in its systematic examination of fundamental questions about human happiness, virtue, and the relationship between pleasure and goodness. Modern readers continue to find resonance in Cicero's careful analysis of competing ethical frameworks and his recognition that philosophical inquiry must ultimately serve practical human needs. The work remains a testament to the power of rational discourse in addressing perennial questions about the nature of the good life and human flourishing.
How can we discern what truly constitutes the highest good? Cicero's methodical investigation of this question continues to challenge and inspire readers, demonstrating the timeless relevance of philosophical inquiry in human affairs.